• Cities as coupled energy systems, where urban form and anthropogenic heat shape surface temperatures and regional climate signals. This energy-balance and modeling pattern is echoed in UHIs, the urban energy balance, numerical UHI models, and satellite or multi-city assessments [1], [9], [11], [19], [20].

• Canopy and boundary-layer dynamics explain urban temperature gradients: street canyon geometry, greening, and vertical mixing link micro-scale processes to city-scale heat patterns. Core work includes canopy vs boundary-layer differentiation, Montreal boundary layer, urban canopies, and Malmö canyon geometry [6], [12], [17], [18].

• Empirical and remote-sensing observations enable cross-city urban climatology, tracking UHIs and climate signals with NYC measurements and satellite-derived maps across coastal cities. This data-driven theme is seen in Observations NYC, Satellite-derived UHIs, and satellite-data assessments [11], [16], [19].

• Urban form, growth, and regional context modulate UHI strength across cities and eras: city size, urbanization rate, and topography influence heat signatures in Mexico City, New York, and other urban systems [2], [3], [10], [15].